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Home / Properties and Applications of Supercapacitors From the Stateoftheart to Future Trends

Properties and Applications of Supercapacitors From the Stateoftheart to Future Trends

Open admission peer-reviewed chapter

Vesture Supercapacitors, Performance, and Time to come Trends

Submitted: Apr 26th, 2021 Reviewed: April 27th, 2021 Published: Baronial 26th, 2021

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.97939

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Abstract

The progress in portable technologies demands compactable energy harvesting and storage. In recent years, carbon-based lightweight and wearable supercapacitors are the new energy storage trends in the market. Moreover, the not-volatile nature, long immovability, eco-friendliness, and electrostatic interaction mechanism of supercapacitors arrive a better choice than traditional batteries. This chapter volition focus on the progress of the wearable supercapacitor developments, the preferred material, blueprint choices for free energy storage, and their performance. Nosotros will be discussing the integrability of these supercapacitors with the next generation wearable technologies like sensors for health monitoring, biosensing and e-textiles. Also, nosotros will investigate the limitations and challenges involves in realizing those supercapacitor integrated technologies.

Keywords

  • carbon
  • energy storages
  • E-textiles
  • health monitoring
  • biosensing

1. Introduction

Wearable technologies can be defined as intelligent devices that tin be worn or attached to the skin'due south surface where they can detect, clarify and transfer the information to relevant systems [ane]. The all-time example of East-textiles in the electric current market is sensors integrated apparels incorporating technologies like antennas, free energy harvesters, and sensors [ii]. These tin can enable the development of next-generation self-reliant wearable applications for wireless communications [3, four], wellness sensing and monitoring [5, half-dozen, 7], and lite-emitting devices [8, nine, 10], which tin observe applications in smart cities, remote areas, telecommunication, and biomedical industries [11].

In the current commercial market, we tin can observe more than than g types of wearables. Some of them include products from famous brands like Apple smartwatches which includes healthcare monitoring, fitness trackers from Garmin, integrated sensors in apparels from Nike and Adidas [12]. In the modern days, the inquiry is focused on developing textiles itself every bit a sensor to monitor the torso functions [13]. The expected market size of wearables is around $57,653 million by 2022 [14].

In general, energy harvesters like piezo generators, which utilizes the energy delivered from the mechanical motions within the torso functions, or solar cells which harvest free energy from the Sun are utilized equally a medium of energy harvesters, and traditional batteries are used equally energy storage in wearable devices [15, 16, 17, 18]. Further, wireless charging is a promising concept for the powering of wearables [xix]. Notwithstanding, current wearable technologies are limited for continuous monitoring due to the power failures from the integrated coin-cells or pouch cell lithium-ion batteries [20]. Too, batteries are volatile and suffer from heating issues [21].

Flexible supercapacitors are an alternative energy storage to be considered for vesture technologies due to the features like fast charging nature, long immovability, integrability with the technologies, and eco-friendliness [22, 23, 24]. In the affiliate, we will discuss how supercapacitors can exist used as free energy storage for supporting wearable technologies and the challenges involved in it.

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2. Performance

Supercapacitors are generally divided into two types: symmetric and asymmetric based on their working mechanism. Symmetric supercapacitors can shop electrical energy through ion adsorption–desorption (electrical double layer capacitive, EDLC) mechanism. In contrast, asymmetric supercapacitors work through the Faradaic reaction (pseudocapacitive) between the electrode and electrolyte [25]. As well, in that location are two types of configuration for the supercapacitors: (i) those have a vertical structure comprising a separator sandwiched between two electrodes are known as sandwich supercapacitors and (2) a micro supercapacitor (MSC) is based on an interdigitated structures in the same plane every bit the electric current collectors, separated from each other past an insulating gap (typically in the range of 10–100 s of micrometers) [26]. Finally, an electrolyte is coated on elevation and between the electrodes and ensures ion transport along the basal plane of the electrodes [27].

In MSC, the insulating gap between the electrodes and electrode width decides the migrating distance of electrolyte ions, which generates the equivalent series resistance (ESR) [28]. With the reduction of the ESR, the performance of the MSCs can be improved, and the adding tin be. The electrode thickness is another factor deciding the storage capacity of the MSCs [29]. The ESR energy storage chapters of the supercapacitors is defined through the energy density (Eden), and the rate of the charge transfer procedure, power density (Pden) is analyzed using measurements similar cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanic accuse–discharge (CC), and impedance measurements [27].

The formulas for calculating the ESR, Eden (Wh cm−2) and Pden (W cm−2), can be defined as follows;

where RESR is the internal voltage drop at the beginning of the discharge, Vdrop, at a constant current density, i calculated from the CC measurements, Cv is the volumetric capacitance, ΔE is the operating voltage window in Volts, V is the volume of the electrodes.

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3. Materials and designs

Materials and designs are an essential cistron that decides the energy storage operation similar flexibility, lightweight, storage chapters, how fast electrolyte ions tin can move within the device, and electrochemical window of the device [27, xxx]. For wearables, a particular type of supercapacitors needs to be designed to match the above specific requirements. In this session, nosotros volition discuss these aspects in detail.

three.1 Materials

3.one.1 Electrodes

The electrodes of supercapacitors crave high surface surface area, long term stability, resistance to electrochemical oxidation or reduction, the capability of multiple cycling materials, optimum pore size distribution, minimized ohmic resistance with the contacts, sufficient electrode-electrolyte solution contact interface, mechanical integrity, and less cocky-discharge [25, 27, 31].

EDLCs mainly utilize carbon-based materials for the electrodes due to their loftier performance [32]. One of the first EDLC developed employs activated carbon every bit the electrode fabric, which exhibited capacity values of 2 F cm−two in HtwoS0iv solutions [33]. However, carbon exhibits slow oxidation, besides having high ESR. The depression performance of carbon is due to poor particle to particle contact of the agglomerates also as the loftier ionic resistance from the electrolyte distributed in the microporous structure, resulting in the poor loftier-frequency characteristics of carbon-based capacitors. On the other hand, the carbon nanotubes exercise not produce satisfactory capacitance unless a conducting polymer [34] is used to course a pseudocapacitance.

Graphene is a grade of carbon with a high surface area upwards to 2675 m2 g−1 and intrinsic capacitance of 21 Î¼F cm−2, which set the upper limit of EDLC capacitance of all carbon-based materials [35]. Also, both faces of graphene sheets are readily accessible by the electrolyte. However, in applied applications, the surface area of graphene volition be much reduced due to agglomeration. Graphene-related materials like reduced graphene oxide are price-effective and widely used electrode materials for EDLCs [36].

Pseudocapacitors which are disproportionate supercapacitors using different materials like RuO2, Manganese oxide (MnO2), and conductive polymers like polyaniline (PANI) with or without the symmetric electrode materials, becomes a direction of interest to achieve the loftier-performance supercapacitors [37]. For example, the hybrid of ultrathin supercapacitors made of MnO2 sheets and graphene sheets using the straight laser writing method offers an electrochemically active surface for fast absorption/desorption electrolyte ions (22). The contributions of boosted interfaces at the hybridized interlayer areas to advance charge transport during the charge/discharge process resulting in an free energy density and power density of two.4 mWh cm−3 and 298 mW cm−three, respectively. Flexible supercapacitors based on manganese hexacyanoferrate-manganese oxide and electrochemically reduced graphene oxide electrode materials (MnHCF-MnO x /ErGO) exhibiting a remarkable areal capacitance of 16.8 mF cm−2 and considerable free energy and power density of 0.5 mWh cm−2 and 0.0023 mW cm−2 [38].

Another approach is to utilize metals like the well-connected nanoporous gold moving-picture show to fabricate interdigital electrode materials for supercapacitors with loftier mechanical flexibility [39]. These supercapacitors exhibit a capacitance of 127 F cm−iii and an energy density of 0.045 Wh cm−3. The gold metallic is known for its loftier electric electrical conductivity, and the concept adopted can be effectively used to integrate with devices in a lesser aerial footprint.

iii.ane.2 Electrolytes

The electrolyte of supercapacitors has a crucial office in deciding properties such as the energy density, ability density, internal resistance, charge per unit operation, operating temperature range, cycling lifetime, cocky-discharge, non-volatile nature, and toxicity of the energy storage. The electrochemical range of an electrolyte decides the prison cell voltage window of the free energy storage similar the batteries and supercapacitors [25] and is governed by the equation,

where E = energy density, C = specific capacitance and 5 = cell voltage.

The electrolytes used in energy storage can exist classified as liquid electrolytes and solid/quasi-solid country electrolytes [forty]. Liquid electrolytes can be further classified equally aqueous electrolytes with a voltage range of 1.0 to 1.3 Five, organic electrolytes within the voltage range of 1 to 2 5, and ionic liquids (IL) with a voltage range of 3.5 to 4.0 V [41]. The solid or quasi-solid state electrolytes can be classified as organic and inorganic electrolytes with a voltage range of 2.v to ii.vii V.

Amid unlike electrolytes, aqueous-based electrolytes possess high conductivity and capacitance. Nonetheless, they are limited by low prison cell voltage windows whereas organic, and IL electrolytes can operate at higher cell voltage windows. ILs are used in wearable energy storage owing to their interesting properties like not-flammability, low vapor pressure, and significant operating potential window. Solid-state electrolytes are devoid of leakage issues but are limited by the low conductivity [42].

3.1.3 Designs

It is highly recommended to accept an optimized design for supercapacitor electrodes for high output operation. In the commercial supercapacitors, sandwich structures in which electrode-electrolyte-electrode configuration is utilized [26]. Nevertheless, these designs tin result in beefy storages, which is less favorable for lightweight clothing technologies.

On the other mitt, the printed supercapacitor, based on second planar interelectrode configuration, is utilized as the bones designs for the printed electrodes. However, the performance is limited in comparison to the sandwich analogue [43]. This has atomic number 82 to the consideration of other designs similar a spiral, split rings, and onion petals which demonstrated an increase in the electrode-electrolyte interactions in the supercapacitor [44]. A considerable enhancement in the storage capacitance and power density was offered with the utilization of the fractals designs [18], which tin can offering an unlock towards the development of high capacity miniaturized [23, 45, 46] too as large scale supercapacitors that tin can be integrated with the textiles and other wearables [47].

The other area of contempo interest in the designs is the origami concepts to improve the performance of the printed supercapacitors [48]. The research used the agile materials in suitable geometry to create cocky-folding structures to perform folding or unfolding functions without having kinetic movements due to external forces.

3.i.4 Encapsulation

The habiliment energy storage will exist exposed to conditions like water moisture conditions from sweating, washing, weather atmospheric condition, and atmospheric pollution. All these weather condition tin can adversely affect the performance of these energy storage. Likewise, the presence of corrosive and volatile electrolytes tin be dangerous to the user's health. Constructive encapsulation is an essential status to sustain a safer storage performance while maintaining a flexible nature [49, l, 51]. Ecoflex and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are the standard encapsulations used for the current wearable energy storage [47, 52].

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4. Types of vesture supercapacitors

4.1 Coin/pouch supercapacitors

The most normally used energy storages for portable devices like smartwatches are the coin and pouch cells. Due to the well-developed production line for the long-used methodology, in that location is high interest in the adjustability of the technique with the extension towards the supercapacitors for the emerging clothing technologies [53, 54, 55]. Pooachi et al. recently developed prototypes of money cells and pouch cells from nitrogen-doped reduced graphene oxide electrodes with phenylenediaminemediated organic electrolyte with a high specific capacitance of 563 and 340 F g−1 with loftier energy density 149.4 and 77.two Wh·kg−one at 1 A g−ane [56].

4.2 Printed supercapacitors

A less complex solution to the energy storage demands of wearables, printed technologies offer highly adaptive methodologies for producing adhesion betwixt the electrodes and current collectors/substrates and eliminates the requirement of inert additives for agile materials. In general, supercapacitor printing techniques tin can be classified into two categories, techniques which practice non require a template (example- inkjet printing and 3D printing) and techniques utilizing a template (example-screen press). All these techniques must be coordinated with the printable materials for improving electrochemical and mechanical operation in a less footprint [57].

Amidst them, light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation-induced graphene based supercapacitors attained exceptional attending due to the cost-effectiveness and ability to integrate with wearable applications in specific scales [58, 59]. Recently, demonstrated textile integrated solar graphene energy storages of 100 cmtwo with a performance of an areal capacitance, 49 mF cm−2, energy density, 6.73 mWh cm−2, ability density, 2.5 mW cm−ii, and stretchability up to 200%, which can effectively be utilized for the realization of functional textiles to support applications like sensors, and displays [47, 60].

Printing loftier-performance supercapacitors in bottom footprints can develop iii-dimensional (3D) supercapacitors [61]. The concept of the layer past layer stacking of individual supercapacitors obtained from the light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation-induced graphenes from PET sheets which result in an areal capacitance >9 mF cm−two [62, 63]. This methodology is a promising direction towards the future of energy storages to exist considered for the ultra-portable and flexible applications. Besides, there are reports of using multilayered structures made of rGO/Au particles [64]. The development of additional features like stretchability upwards to 50% in m stretch cycles with the 3D supercapacitors will contribute towards the withstanding of the deformations and prevention against the performance degradation [65].

Nonimpact press technology like inkjet printing is an additive-based approach that can create patterns either continuously or in steps by propelling droplets of liquid precursor materials onto various substrates without the aid of predesigned masks through the control of printer head and ink toner [66]. The formation of printed features depends on the capability of the inkjet printing apparatus, the viscosity, surface tension, dispersibility of the inks, and the wettability of the substrates to be printed on [67]. Yu and co-workers reported paper-based, all-solid, flexible, planar supercapacitors by inkjet printing PEDOT: PSS-CNT/silver nanoparticle as the electrode textile [68]. The obtained microdevices were able to demonstrate rate adequacy up to 10 000 mV southward−ane, fast frequency response (relaxation time constant of 8.5 ms), high volumetric specific capacitance (23.6 F cm−3), and long wheel stability (92% capacitance memory after 10, 000 cycles).

Screen press is some other arroyo for printing and is conducted through squeegee by pressing the ink down with enough force to penetrate through pre-patterned masks (screen or stencil) onto the desired substrate [69]. The process tin can be conducted on both rigid (silicon or glass) and flexible substrates (textiles or papers) and tin can reach a minimum resolution of 30–50 Î¼m [70]. The quality of the resulting features depends on the stenciling techniques, the printability of the inks, and the affinity betwixt the ink and substrate. Fifty-fifty though this method is capable of mass production, some issues like printable ink must have a high viscosity, and suitable shear-thinning property limits the potential. Using this methodology, Lu et al. prepared an all-solid MSC by screen-press FeOOH/MnO2 composites on different substrates similar PET, paper, and cloth. The fully printed supercapacitor exhibits a high expanse-specific capacitance of 5.seven mF cm−2 and an energy density of 0.0005 mWh cm−two at a ability density of 0.04 mW cm−two [71].

Scroll to roll printing of supercapacitors through the depression-temperature laser annealing process of whorl-to-gyre (R2R) printed metal nanoparticle (NP) ink on a polymer substrate is an area of interest that can take the largescale commercial applications [72]. Some other approach is to laser-print the toner on metal foils, followed by thermal annealing in a hydrogen environs, finally resulting in the patterned thin graphitic carbon or graphene electrodes for supercapacitors. The electrochemical cells are made of graphene–graphitic carbon electrodes, which can be coil-to-roll printed [73].

4.3 Yarn based supercapacitors

E-textiles are the new frontiers in the history of fabrics that comprise the technologies like displays and sensing [lx, 74, 75]. Textiles or fabrics are flexible materials, which use fibers originating from natural or synthetic every bit fundamental building blocks, with a considerable length to diameter ratio (~1000 to 1) [76]. The fabrics tin can be in the form of staples or filament.

Natural fibers such every bit cotton staple fiber accept a limited length. Filament fiber tends to exist continuous in length, whereas silk is an instance of a natural filament An example of constructed fibers are filament fibers. Both staple fibers and threads tin can be made into yarns and fabrics. A more recent form of textile is electrospun, where the fabrication is achieved past applying a high voltage to an aqueous polymeric solution. The polymer can exist organic or inorganic, depending on the intended application. Yarn is a long strand constituting material fibers, filaments, or similar textile converted to a textile fabric through weaving, knitting, or other intertwining techniques [77]. The yarn tin be formed from diverse manufacturing processes. The spinning procedure is used to convert fibers into yarns, usually by twisting together several fibers. Unremarkably, in spinning, fibers are aligned in 1 axis and are axially twisted. The direction of twist is denoted by 'S' or 'Z' twist.

When looking for second textile devices such as supercapacitor devices, the usual compages found in the sandwich [78] and in-plane (planar) configurations [79]. The in-airplane architecture is more than flexible than its sandwich structure counterpart due to its lightweight and flexibility (structural blueprint), making it a more suitable option when working with 2d active electrode materials [80]. In the example of 1D yarn supercapacitors, common existing device shapes include coaxial [81], cadre-spun [82], parallel [83], two-ply twisted [84], and helical structures [85].

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five. Future trends—scalability and integration of wearable supercapacitors

The major hindrance of the current wearable free energy storage to be commercialized is its limitation for large-scale fabrications to meet the power requirements of integrated technologies [86]. Besides, for textile-based clothing technologies, another challenge is developing a single cloth unit incorporating energy storage and devices together. The achievement of cost-constructive all-in-i wearable technologies without compensating the functioning of the technologies is a dandy challenge in this area [87, 88, 89, ninety, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96]. Some fo the research groups demonstrated the laboratory protoypes in this area and in Figure 1, we summarized these studies.

Effigy one.

Applications benefited from the wearable supercapacitors.

Only a few groups so far that reported virtually the possibilities of developing their energy storages can be adult into self-powered wearable technologies using the industrial mechanism because of the low performance [97]. Besides, the price-effectiveness of the process needs to be bonny in comparison to the existing battery engineering science. Nevertheless, the development of printing methodologies like screen printing [56], inkjet printing [61], and light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation printing seems to be a solution to the stitching issues currently faced past the yarn-based free energy storages. The successful generation of high-performance flexible, lightweight, miniaturized supercapacitors will enable a step closer to realizing eco-friendly, not-volatile portable and article of clothing devices.

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6. Conclusions

Supercapacitors which leaves the further possibilities of miniaturization without compromising the loftier energy storage capacity and transfer rate provides the scope of comeback to be adopted as an eco-friendly, non-voltaile energy storage source for the future wearable technologies.

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Acknowledgments

LVT acknowledge the RMIT seed fund, 2018 to support this work. IAK thanks Australian Inquiry Conucil (ARC) linkage grant- LP 110100455 for the PhD scholarship.

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Conflict of interest

The authors declare no disharmonize-of-interest proclamation.

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Appendices and nomenclature

MSC

Microsupercapacitor

EDLC

Electrochemical double layer capacitance

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Written By

Litty V. Thekkekara and Imtiaz Ahmed Khan

Submitted: April 26th, 2021 Reviewed: April 27th, 2021 Published: August 26th, 2021

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This affiliate is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted apply, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original piece of work is properly cited.

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Source: https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/76835